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What is a castle? The first image which comes to mind is of an enclosure set on high ground and fortified against attack. This holds true until the 15th century, when the castle was no longer needed as a military bastion. About that time, the military stronghold gave way to the palace.
The first military strongholds were built by primitive man, as a protection against men and animals. They were generally situated on an elevated spot, such as a plateau surrounded by cliffs or strategically placed near rivers or crosswords. Early tribes used these castles to live in, and as storehouses for food, goods and booty. The original small military enclosures soon grew into large structures which also housed temples where early man worshipped. As the population grew, houses were built beyond the boundaries and down the side of the hill, though still in the shadow and under the protection of the fortress.
The pax romana or (Roman peace) had a lasting influence on military organization in much of Europe. Order was maintained by a system of border posts. These became permanent camps, from which many of the European cities sprang. The castle was adapted to protect the roads, coasts, river crossings and people. It consisted of a square wooden tower, several stories high and crowned with an upper terrace of battlements. There were strong walls or stockades of tree trunks usually surrounded by a moat.
In Roman occupied areas, Roman villas were unfortified and the countryside was at peace. The landowner used it as a residence more than anything else, and as a farm, surrounded by storehouses and out-buildings for guests, cattle and slaves.
But things changed with the military collapse of Rome. The Roman patricians abandoned their villas and took refuge in the towns, which began to be fortified. The Teutons invaded conquering the lands once held by the Roman Empire and built fortresses to defend their territories against subsequent warring barbarians. Wars covered the old Empire, quarrels broke out between factions, between tribes and between monarchs. Despite resistance from the Romanized population, there was a new surge of invasions in the 9th and 10th century. These threats meant more need for fortifications and hence castles.
Changing times brought changing needs and the Medieval castle first appeared. In the middle of the 10th century, the Normans moved from their forts and began to erect small stone castles built with great care. These structures were highly impressive for their time. The basic plan was taken from that earlier system, a wall of stakes, surrounded by a wide moat, and in the middle a tower of several stories. The entrance to the tower, which was above ground level, could be reached only by ladder or by a bridge across the moat.
By the middle of the 13th century, most of the wooden sections of the castle had been replaced by longer lasting and fire-resistant stone. That many still stand today, is a testament to their construction. The central tower remained the residence of the ruling lord but was not heavily fortified so as to withstand attack if the enclosure was penetrated. But the stone castles were so expensive, only Kings, Princes and the truly wealthy could afford them.
Engineer-architects had to be brought in, skilled in technicalities like firing angles and possibilities for flanking movements. Castles began to have more than one tower and each tower took on the appearance of a miniature fort, or a "castle within a castle." Towers were circular, semi-circular or square. The access gates to the castle were always a vulnerable point and were often protected by more towers on either side.
The typical castle we envision today consisted of a keep, and an extensive outer area surrounded by a wall, where the civilian population and their livestock could take refuge. This was known as the outer bailey or second courtyard. Between the keep and the outer area was a high inner wall, enclosing the chapel, the ceremonial hall and the palace. The area was called the inner bailey or basecourt.
The Crusades adapted the castle to the Holy Land and the two most famous, Crac des Chevaliers and Sayun, influenced the development of castles in Europe.
Castles became more sophisticated as time passed. The castles of the 14th century on were adapted to withstand artillery by adding low walls fortified with bulwarks. These became known as citadels. There are several types, classified first by their location and then by their builder, such as royal, noble, etc. They are also classified by their inhabitants, such as Arab, Norman, etc.
By the end of the 15th century, the advent of artillery had caused yet further change in castle architecture. Shooting niches in the tower walls were enlarged to allow them to hold medium caliber pieces of artillery. The walls were made thicker than ever and sloped directly into the moat, a design created by Renaissance Italian engineers.
The peak of Renaissance glory was the time when the absolute monarch emerged, with nobleman and princes in his shadow. Fearful of rebellion, throughout Europe the monarchs ordered the destruction of their nobles' castles. It happened in Spain during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabel and in France during the time of Louis VIII.
Because the old castles were no longer very effective against modern warfare, some nobles moved to royal courts. Others moved out of their uncomfortable castles and built new residences on flat ground, surrounded by the comfort of parks and woodland.
Maybe the most famous of this era are the castles of the Loire valley in France. Moats, towers and enclosures still existed, but they were used only as decorative elements. Finally, in the 17th and 18th centuries the castle as such disappeared and became a palatial residence, devoid of any military or defensive use.
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